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The Herbalists
Herbals, which list the practical uses of plants have been written since the times of the Romans and before. In fact many of the herbals written during the Middle Ages drew upon manuscripts dating back to the Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder.
| In 1475 Konrad von Megenberg brought out Das Buch der Natur which included the first known woodcuts used for botanical illustrations. However, before the sixteenth century very few original illustrations were prepared for herbals - they were all very stylized copies of copies, and came to bear little or no resemblance to the living plant.
Probably the best known herbal is the one written by John Gerard in 1597. Gerard was born in Nantwich, Cheshire, England in 1545 and died in London in 1612. During his lifetime he was a surgeon, the superintendent of Lord Burghley's gardens (Lord Burghley was Elizabeth I's Chief Secretary of State) and an apothecary to James I.
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One of the illustrations in his herbal is of the potato plant, recently imported from the New World - and is thought to be the first published drawing of it.
John Parkinson, who was 20 years younger than Gerard, was also an apothecary to James I. Parkinson had a famous garden at Longacre, London and in 1640 published his great herbal
The herbal which makes particularly fascinating reading is that published by Nicholas Culpeper in 1649. Culpeper linked herbs with astrology and tended to exaggerate the medicinal claims to be made for each plant. His herbal includes a lot of fanciful or superstitious material and also unconcernedly flatly contradicts Gerard and Parkinson.
By the mid-seventeenth century the goodwife's guides and recipe books would be found in all kitchens or still-room shelves - Gerard's Herbal; The Profitable Art of Gardening, written by Thomas Hill in 1568; The Good Housewife's Jewel and Rare Conceits in Cookery, written by T. Dawson in 1585, and many others. These books gave the housewife all she needed to know about what hedges to plant - Sweet Briar and Elder - and when; and which seeds to sow when the moon was waxing and cut back when the moon was waning. Other useful information included how to catch moles, how to strengthend seeds by sprinkling them with wine, and how to keep adders out of the garden by planting Wormwood, Mugwort and Southernwood in the corners. (But, on the other hand, adders loved Fennel so care was needed.)
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Herbs in cooking
Herbs, above all, have always been a vital ingredient in cooking. For centuries, Mint has given its savour to lamb and mutton, Sage to the greasy flesh of pork and goose, and Dill has made the digestion of foods such as cabbage and cucumber much easier.
Before the great explorers and adventurers of the Elizabethan age discovered the New World, and before the great Dutch East India Company (founded 1602) made possible the import of tea and oriental spices, herbs were the only source of tea and of food flavourings. And even after this herbs long continued to be used by most people since the new imports to Europe were extremely expensive. Tea, for example, in England in the mid-seventeenth century cost between six and ten pounds sterling (about 15 to 25 dollars) for one pound in weight!
Almost every herb, regardless of its secondary use for medicine, or perfume, is used in cooking.
| Ceremonial herbs
The herbs listed below are a few of those which played an important part in religion, ritual or tradition.
| Bay. The Greeks made Bay into crowns of honour for their poets and heroes. This tradition, linked with the botanical name, Lauris Nobilis, has come down the centuries as far as twentieth-century Britain in the idea of the 'Poet Laureate'.
Bay was sacred to Apollo, the sun god, and, belonging to the sun, was a strong defence against evil and the powers of darkness. Where a Bay tree grew, no witch or devil, thunder or lightning could do harm. At Delphi, the Oracle and the lesser priestesses spoke their prophecies with a Bay leaf between their lips, perhaps to keep all harm or evil from their words.
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| Coriander. This is a very ancient herb, for Coriander seeds have been found in tombs of the twenty-first Egyptian dynasty (1085-945BC).
It is spoken of, too, in the Old Testament of the Bible. When the Children of Israel were returning to their homeland from slavery in Egypt, they ate manna in the wilderness, and 'the manna was as Coriander seed'. It is still one of the traditional 'Bitter Herbs' to be eaten at the Passover, when the Jewish people remember their great journey.
| Elder. There is a tradition that the cross on which Christ was crucified was made of Elder wood. Perhaps because of this, people believed that Elder possessed a great power against evil and black magic, but although they valued it, they feared it too. They thought it an unlucky wood from which to make cradle rockers because the spirit of the tree might harm the child. Farmers were unwilling to use an Elder switch to drive cattle. And one legend held that the tree would only grow where blood had been shed.
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| Hyssop. This was a holy herb, used in purification ceremonies in the temples of many countries including the Temple of Solomon. In one of the psalms of King David there is the prayer ' Purge me with Hyssop and I shall be clean.' Hyssop was held to have the power to cleanse away evil, and so, naturally enough, it found an everyday use, too, in the Middle Ages, when it was used as a strewing herb to give freshness and cleanliness to a house.
Herbs for fragrance and beauty
In the middle ages plants like Thyme, Lavender, Mint, Basil, and Hyssop were used for strewing on the bare or straw-covered floors of houses, while for the floors of churches special herbs - Marjoram and Rosemary - were used. Up until the eighteenth century, while there was little personal hygiene and less sanitation, plants from the herb garden were made into pot-pourri and sweet-scented posies (tussie mussies) to ward off the foul smells that were everywhere, indoors and out. While for those who could enjoy the rare luxury of being clean, there were herbal bath essences, hair rinses and tooth washes. Oils from the seeds of herbs were used, from Roman until Tudor times, for polishing wooden floors and furniture. Below are listed some of the most important of the fragrant herbs.
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| | Camomile. In Tudor England Camomile was used in the Knot Gardens, and for lawns as a substitute for grass. There is a story that Francis Drake was playing bowls on a Camomile lawn when the Spanish Armada was sighted.
Because of its sweet scent when dried, Camomile was used for strewing on bare floors and for beauty preparations - being made into a kind of shampoo.
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| Lavender. This is one of the most famous of all herbs, but there is little record of it in England until the middle of the sixteenth century. It is, however, fairly certain that the Romans brought it with them to Britain as they used it to perfume their baths. (Its name, Lavandula Officinalis in fact, comes from the Latin lavare to wash) Lavender was probably grown in monastery gardens, but its lack of medical usefulness kept it in the background. Then, in Tudor times, people rediscovered its fragrance, and its power to ease stiff joints and relieve tiredness, and it was brought in quantities from herb farms to the London Herb Market at Bucklersbury. 'Who'll buy my Lavender?' became perhaps the most famous of all the London street-cries. And in France, now as in the seventeenth century, huge fields of Lavender are grown for the perfume trade.
| Meadowsweet. Queen of the Meadows. Tradition said that this was a sacred plant to the Druids, and certainly it was much used as a strewing herb. John Gerard thought very warmly of it: 'The leavs and floures farr excell all other strong herbs, for to deck up houses, to straw in chambers, halls, and banqueting houses in Summer time; for the smell thereof makes the heart merrie, delighteth the senses...'. And it was said, too, that 'Queene Elizabeth of famous memory, did more desire it than any other herb to strew her chambers withall.'
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| Nettle. One species is known as Roman nettle, so it is likely that the Romans used it both as a vegetable and a herb. Apart from enjoying the young shoots as a spring vegetable, people found that eating them was good for the complexion. This would certainly still be a very inexpensive way of keeping a good skin, so it may be worth trying.
| Rosemary. This is a herb that has a place in almost every one of the groups within the great herb family. One of the many legends about it tells that its blue flowers were once white but that when the Holy Family fled into Egypt, the Virgin Mary spread her cloak on a Rosemary bush, and the blossoms turned blue in her honour. Another story was that the plant will grow in height for 33 years, the length of Christ's life, and then grow no taller. And a much more earthly view was that where Rosemary flourishes, the wife rules!
Rosemary had many uses. Its invigorating scent warded off pestilence (and black magic) and made it a substitute for incense. When it was put into the fire used for cooking, it made a lovely smell. It soothed headaches and stimulated the heart. It was (and is) good for the hair and skin. And finally, it was the herb of fidelity, worn by bride and bridegroom at their wedding.
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Southernwood. This plant's French name was 'Garderobe' and it was much used in medieval France in its dried form to hang in clothes cupboards and chests to give a lovely scent and to keep the moth away. It was widely grown, too, in Elizabethan gardens, and often picked for the pleasure of its perfume. One of its country names, Lad's Love, came about because it was so often put into the posies which lovers gave to their sweethearts, partly for its scent, and partly because it was believed to be a love charm. The same two reasons made it a favourite strewing herb for bedrooms.
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Woodruff. This is another herb which was popular in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries for its perfume, and hung in rooms and linen presses. John Gerard recommended it to be used indoors to 'attemper the air, coole and make fresh the place...' It was strewn over floors, too, and put inside mattresses, and on special occasions was used to decorate churches.
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| Thyme. To the Greeks Thyme was a symbol of courage. They used it in baths and for strewing, while its antiseptic quality made it favoured as an incense in temples and theatres. And the Romans burnt it in their rooms.
| Herbs in magic and myth
Obviously, herbs, which were so valuable to people and could even sometimes mean the difference between life and death, played a great part in magic and superstition. Astrology was used to work out the most propitious times for the planting and harvesting of herbs.
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| Certain of them were thought to be under the influence of a particular planet - Chives, for example, belonged to Mars, and Chervil to Jupiter - and the position of the sun and moon were also taken into account when planning to sow or harvest. Even today, just to be on the safe side, many people still plant herbs during the waxing of the moon. Because people know the power and usefulness of herbs in their everyday life, they turned to them for help against evil and harmful magic. They believed, for example, that Rosemary, Lavender, Dill, Hyssop, Angelica and Southernwood would protect them from witchcraft and the evil eye. The leaves of the Elder were gathered on the last day of April and fixed around doors and windows and it was believed that the inhabitants would then be in no danger from the charms and spells of witches. The Elder was a magic tree, all herbs were under the protection of the Elder Mother and, although it was full of love for mankind, it was wiser to ask its pardon if forced to cut it.
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Basil. This is a herb of contradictions. In Western Europe it has been thought both to belong to the Devil and to be a sovereign remedy against witches. The Greeks and Romans believed that people mush curse when they sowed Basil to ensure germination. There was even a doubt about whether it was poisonous or not, and one record claimed that 'Hollerius, a French physitian, affirms...that an acquaintance of his by common smelling to it had a Scorpion bred in his brain.'
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| Lady's Mantle. Lady's Mantle was a special dew flower because drops collected in the cup of the grey-green leaves. And dew, especially dew in May, had a magical power to preserve a woman's youth, and took extra value from teh Plant where it was found. Whoever collected the dew had to go out alone, in full moonlight, naked and with bare feet as a sign of purity to ward off any lurking evil forces.
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Marjoram. The name Marjoram means 'Joy of the Mountain'. According to Greek myth, Amarakos was a youth in the service of the king of Cyprus. One day he dropped a jar of perfume, and fainted in terror, and the gods changed him into Marjoram. Venus herself was the first to grow it, and when it grew on a tomb, it was believed that all was well with the dead.
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| Marigold. The Greeks delighted in marigolds for decoration. In medieval times they were an emblem of love, and had a main part in at least one complicated spell which would enable a young maiden to discover whom she would marry. To dream of them was a sign of all good things, and simply to look at them drove away evil humours.
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Mint. Legend has it that menthe was a nymph whom Pluto, the lord of the Underworld, loved. Pluto's wife, Proserpine, was jealous of her so turned her into the herb which bears her name.
For the Greeks Mint was a magic herb, used in their mysteries and probably, too, in their perfumes and baths. In Athens people scented different parts of their bodies with different herbs, and Mint was kept for the arms, to give them the smell of strength.
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| Mugwort. Astrologers regarded Mugwort as a plant of Venus, and therefore useful for treating women's ailments. if it was picked on St. John's Day, it gave protection against misfortune, ill-health and weariness.
The Roman writer, Pliny, who compiled the 27 volumes of his Natural History in the first century AD was of the opinion that 'They that travel, if they carry Mugwort, will never tire.' He also believed they would never be attacked by wild animals.
| Parsley. The god, Hercules, is said to have chosen Parsley for his garlands. The Greeks consequently thought highly of it an wove it into the crowns for victors in the athletic games.
Parsley is very slow to germinate, and the magical explanation for this was that before it came up it had to go to the devil and back seven times. People believed, too, that only a witch could grow it, and that a fine harvest was only sure if the seeds were planted on Good Friday, or by a pregnant woman.
Once planted, Parsley was not to be moved. change displeased it and that could bring misfortune to the household.
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| Rue. In ancient times, Rue was very potent. The god Mercury gave it to Odysseus to set him free from the charms of the witch, Circe.
The Greeks believed that Rue stolen from a neighbour's garden throve better than a plant acquired honestly.
Even animals were thought to use its power: 'When Weesel is to fight with Serpent, she armeth herself by eating Rue, against the might of the Serpent.' Presumably she then won!
| Violet. A Greek myth relates that Zeus fell in love with the beautiful maiden, Io, and turned her into a cow to protect her from the jealous anger of Juno, his wife. The earth grew Violets to be Io's food, and the flower was named after her.
Violets have always been the emblem of modesty, and John Gerard loved them because 'They stirre up a man to that which is comely and honest...'
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| | Page 2 - Herbs in medicine
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Herbs
